The last concept we discussed on Thursday was teh the Hemolytic Disease of Newborns and to give myself a better understanding and to make sure I am not confused I am going to summarize what was said.
Hemolytic Disease of newborns results from when the fetus is Rh+ and the mother is Rh-, therefore the mother has no antibodies for the Rh+. However if the Rh+ babies blood is exposed to the mother her body will start to produce Rh+ antibodies, which we do not want the mother to start doing this for any length of time so she is administered a synthetic drug called the Rhogam shot. The Rhogam shot prevents the spread of Rh+ antibodies. In addition when you are Rh- you do not have any Rh antibodies unles you have been exposed to blood that is Rh+ and that is when you produce Rh antibodies.
THis is important to understand because if the child is Rh+ and the mother is Rh- and has already been exposed and not treated, the mother is producing Rh antibodies which can lead to hemolytic diseas of newborns which is when red blood cells break open and release hemoglobin into the surrounding fluid (plasma).

This week we discussed blood and the formed elements of blood. The formed elements of blood are as follows
1. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells) - they are biconcave, which helps with the diffusion of other particles within the blood. They live for about 120 days and their main function is the transportion of oxygen throughout the body to tissue and the exportation/transportation of carbon dioxide to the lungs to be exhaled out. In addition, Red Blood Cells do not have a nucleus once they become Reticulocytes.
2. Leukocytes (White Blood Cells) - There are five different types. Three have granules that can be seen by a light microscope and two do not have granules that can be seen by a light microscope.
Granulocytes (Have Granules)
Neutorphil - are the most abundant and their nucleus are mutilobed, their main function
is to phagocytize bacteria
Eosinophil - have a bilobed nucleus and their main function is to kill parasitic worms
destroy antigen-antibody complexes and inactivate some chemicals of
allergy.
Basophil - Nucleus is lobed and the granules are so closely compacted that they cover
the entire nucleus of the White Blood Cell. Their functionis to release
histamine and other mediators of inflammation. They also contain heparin
and anticagulant
Agranulocytes (Have no Granules)
Lymphocyte - The nucleus is spherical or indented. There is a small halo affect around
the nucleus. Their function is to mount immune response by direct cell
attact or via antibodies.
Monocyte - They have a U shaped or Kidney shaped nucleus. Their function is
phagocyosis. Monocytes develop into macrophages in the bodies tissue.
3. Platelets - are cytoplasmic fragments from megakaryocytes, which are bone marrow cells that are responsible for the production of platelets. The function of platelets is to form a connective mesh work that will help to seal a small tear of cut. They help with blood clotting.

The easiest example is a common one. I would safely bet that everyone has had a cut in their life. This is something physical that we are able to see the forming of a clot when our skin is cut. This formed clot then becomes a scab. Blood clotting and being able to form a clot to prevent hemorrhaging is a life saving technique that the body is able to accomplish on its own.

Endocrine Glands and the Hormones the secrete and produce

Back to the Endocrine Glands and the hormones they produce and secrete.
Pituitary Gland, also known as the master gland, has two separate lobes, the posterior pituitary and the anterior pituitary.
Posterior Pituitary contains axons and axon terminals, the posterior pituitary does not produce any hormones but it does release hormones that are synthesized by the hypothalamus. It stores and releases two hormones
1. Oxytocin (OT) – helps with labor and birth
2. Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
Anterior Pituitary Releases hormones stimulated by Releasing Hormones (RH) and suppressed hormones by Inhibiting Hormones (IH). The following are the hormones that are located (produced) and secreted by the Anterior Pituitary.
1. Human Growth Hormone (hGH) – This hormone is the most abundant in the anterior pituitary
2. Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) or Thyrotropin – stimulate the synthesis and secretion of the two thyroid hormones T3 and T4
T3 - Triiodothyronine
T4 – Thyroxine
3. Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH)
4. Luteinizing Hormones (LH) – triggers ovulation in women and the secretion of testosterone in men
5. Prolactin (PRL) – initiates and maintains milk secretion by the mammary glands
6. Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) or Corticotropin – controls the production and secretion of the glucocorticoids which is primarily cortisol by the adrenal cortex of the adrenal gland
7. Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone (MSH)- skin pigmentation and has an influence on the brain
The Thyroid Gland produces two hormones
1. T3 – Triiodthyronine
2. T4 – Thyrooxine
In addition a few cells called parafollicular cells produce calcitonin which helps regulate calcium level and calcium homeostasis.
The Parathyroid Glands – Have Chief cells that produce
1. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) – this is the major regulator of the levels of calcium, magnesium and phosphate ions.
The Adrenal Glands have two structural and functional regions
1. Adrenal Cortex which is the outer layer and produces steroid hormones
It has three layers
1. Outer – hormone –mineralocorticoid (aldosterone) – regulates homeostasis of the two mineral ions
1. Sodium ions
2. Potassium ions
2. Middle – Hormone –Glucocorticoids – regulates metabolism and resistance to stress
1. Cortisol
2. Corticosterone
3. Cortisone
3. Inner – Androgen – Steroid Hormones – Stimulated by ACTH
The Pancreas which is both and endocrine gland and an exocrine gland, the pancreatic Islets secrete two hormones.
1. Alpha Cells secrete glucagons
2. Beta Cells secrete insulin
The Gonads are located in the ovaries of a woman and the testes of a man. The female produces two hormones
1. Estrogen
2. Progesterone – which are both responsible for regulating female reproductive cycle and maintain pregnancy, along with preparing the mammary glands for lactation. In addition these two hormones influence the development of secondary sex characteristics.
The male produces one hormone
1. Testosterone – This is the primary androgen of the male sex hormone along with influencing the development of secondary sex characteristics.
The Pineal Gland – secretes one hormone
1. Melatonin – This helps with the setting of the body’s biological clock

Endocrine

The Endocrine System consists of nine glands two of which are gonads, the ovaries and testes.
Pituitary or also known as the Hypophysis gland is located in the brain suspended for the Hypothalamus. The pituitary gland consists of the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary does not produce any hormones; however the pituitary contains axons and the axon terminals of more than 10,000 neurons with cell bodies in the nuclei of the Hypothalamus. The Anterior pituitary releases hormones and suppresses hormones along with producing hormones.
The Thyroid Gland is located inferior to the larynx, it has two lobes that are located to the left and right side of the larynx and the mass that these lobes are connected by is a mass of tissue called isthmus. The Thyroid Gland produces two hormones.
The Parathyroid Glands are located on the posterior surface of the Thyroid lobes. The Parathyroid Glands produce one hormone through the chief cells within the Parathyroid Glands.
The Adrenal Glands also known as the Suprarenal Glands are located superior to each kidney. They have two structural and functional regions, they Adrenal cortex which produces steroid hormones and the adrenal medulla which produces hormones.
The pancreas is both an Endocrine Gland and an Exocrine Gland; the pancreas is located in the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine. The pancreas produces two hormones.
The Gonads which are located in the ovaries and the testes produce different hormones depending on which sex the gland is located in. In females the Gonads are located in the ovaries and produce two hormones. In males the Gonads are located in the testes and produce only one hormone.
The Pineal Gland is located at the roof of the brain at the third ventricle. The Pineal Gland produces one hormone and this gland is not completely understood at this time.

The last class we started to discuss the special senses. The special sense that was focused on was the eyeball. The external structures covering the eyeball include the eyelids (Palpebrae), eyelashes, and eyebrow. Along with the external structures of the eye itself, is the sclera which is the white of the eye and it is made up of collagen and is covered by the conjunctiva, which is the clear layer above the sclera. Other structures include the pupil, which allows light to enter into the eye and the iris which is the color of the eye. These two structures are covered by the cornea which has no blood supply.
The internal structures of the eye consist of the lens which is composed of layers and these layers continue to accumulate throughout the years of life. The lens is held in place behind the pupil by connective ligaments called the Ciliary Body which are located beneath the iris. The gel like substance called Fibrous Humor holds the retina in place without destructive pressure and is the place where the veins and arteries are located and held in place within the eye.
In addition there are three layers also known as tunics of the eye.
Layers
Sclera – Outermost layer
Retina – Innermost Layer
Choroid – Middle Layer
Tunics
Fibrous Tunic- Outermost Layer
Visual Tunic – Innermost layer
Pigmented Tunic – Middle Layer